1073–1216

Papal plenitude of power: Gregory VII, the "two swords" and the "Vicar of Christ"

In the late 11th century the reform party gained control of the Roman see, and the investiture controversy set the papacy against secular rulers. Gregory VII declared that the state was instituted only to restrain sin, while the Church is eternal, and therefore the pope has the right not only to appoint bishops but also to depose princes and emperors. In the 12th century Bernard, Hugh of St. Victor and John of Salisbury developed the theory of the "two swords": the temporal sword belongs to the prince but is given to him by the Church, which therefore holds supreme authority. Innocent III called himself the "Vicar of Christ": bishops represent Christ through the pope, and the pope is set "over nations and kingdoms" and may depose a prince "by reason of sin."