1619–1716

Continental Rationalism: Descartes, Grotius, Spinoza, and Leibniz

In the 17th century several thinkers built philosophical systems that touched on Christian faith. René Descartes (1596–1650), a graduate of the Jesuit school at La Flèche, underwent a philosophical illumination on 10 November 1619 and set out his method in 1637 and 1641. He considered his philosophy compatible with Catholic faith, but it was banned from teaching at Utrecht in 1642.

The Arminian Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) grounded faith in On the Truth of the Christian Religion (1622), and On the Law of War and Peace (1625) laid the foundations of international law. Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) was expelled from Amsterdam's synagogue in 1656; his Ethics appeared posthumously in 1677. Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) argued against Spinoza. In theology, Cartesianism was carried forward by Christoph Wittich and the Oratorian Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715).